PCCET Palo Alto Networks Certified Cybersecurity Entry-level Technician Questions and Answers

Wireshark is a network analysis tool that can capture packets from various network interfaces and protocols. It can display the captured packets in a human-readable format, as well as filter, analyze, and export them. Wireshark is widely used for network troubleshooting, security testing, and education purposes12. References: Wireshark · Go Deep, How to Use Wireshark to Capture, Filter and Inspect Packets, Palo Alto Networks Certified Cybersecurity Entry-level Technician

The six pillars include:

1. Business (goals and outcomes)

2. People (who will perform the work)

3. Interfaces (external functions to help achieve goals)

4. Visibility (information needed to accomplish goals)

5. Technology (capabilities needed to provide visibility and enable people)

6. Processes (tactical steps required to execute on goals)

Application (Layer 4 or L4): This layer loosely corresponds to Layers 5 through 7 of the OSI model.

Transport (Layer 3 or L3): This layer corresponds to Layer 4 of the OSI model.

Internet (Layer 2 or L2): This layer corresponds to Layer 3 of the OSI model.

Network Access (Layer 1 or L1): This layer corresponds to Layers 1 and 2 of the OSI model

East-West traffic is the lateral movement of data packets between servers within a data center, or across private and public clouds1. This type of traffic has grown substantially with the proliferation of data centers and cloud adoption, and it now surpasses the conventional North-South traffic that goes in or out of the network2. Therefore, it is important to protect East-West traffic from potential malicious actors and breaches, as threats can arise internally and move laterally without ever touching the traditional network perimeter12. By inspecting and monitoring all East-West traffic, organizations can effectively block the lateral movement of threat actors, increase network visibility, protect vital applications and data, and lower costs and risks for distributed operations23. References:

• East-West Traffic: Everything You Need to Know | Gigamon Blog
• What is East-West Security? | VMware Glossary
• How to Harness East-West Visibility for a Stronger Defensive Security …

 An exploit is a type of malware that takes advantage of a vulnerability on an endpoint or server to execute malicious code, gain unauthorized access, or perform other malicious actions. Exploits can be categorized into known and unknown (i.e., zero-day) exploits, depending on whether the vulnerability is publicly disclosed or not12. Exploits can target various types of software, such as operating systems, browsers, applications, or network devices3. References: Malware vs. Exploits, Top Routinely Exploited Vulnerabilities, 12 Types of Malware + Examples That You Should Know, Palo Alto Networks Certified Cybersecurity Entry-level Technician

Sanctioned SaaS applications are those that are approved and supported by the organization’s IT department. They provide business benefits such as increased productivity, collaboration, and efficiency. They are fast to deploy because they do not require installation or maintenance on the user’s device. They require minimal cost because they are usually paid on a subscription or usage basis, and they do not incur hardware or software expenses. They are infinitely scalable because they can adjust to the changing needs and demands of the organization without affecting performance or availability12. References: 8 Types of SaaS Solutions You Must Know About in 2024, What is SaaS (Software as a Service)? | SaaS Types | CDW, Palo Alto Networks Certified Cybersecurity Entry-level Technician

SOAR tools ingest aggregated alerts from detection sources (such as SIEMs, network security tools, and mailboxes) before executing automatable, process-driven playbooks to enrich and respond to these alerts.

 A SIEM (Security Information and Event Management) is a system that collects, analyzes, and correlates security logs from multiple sources, such as endpoints, firewalls, servers, etc. A SIEM can provide a centralized and comprehensive view of the security posture of an organization, as well as detect and respond to threats. Configuring endpoints to forward logs to a SIEM is the recommended method for collecting security logs from multiple endpoints, as it reduces the network bandwidth and storage requirements, simplifies the log management process, and enables faster and more effective security analysis. Leveraging an EDR (Endpoint Detection and Response) solution to request the logs from endpoints is not recommended, as it may cause performance issues on the endpoints, increase the network traffic, and create a dependency on the EDR solution. Connecting to the endpoints remotely and downloading the logs is not recommended, as it is a manual and time-consuming process, prone to errors and inconsistencies, and may expose the endpoints to unauthorized access. Building a script that pulls down the logs from all endpoints is not recommended, as it requires technical skills and maintenance, may not be compatible with different endpoint platforms, and may introduce security risks if the script is compromised or misconfigured. References:

• Palo Alto Networks Certified Cybersecurity Entry-level Technician (PCCET) - Palo Alto Networks
• Fundamentals of Security Operations Center (SOC)
• 10 Palo Alto Networks PCCET Exam Practice Questions - CBT Nuggets

 A zero-day threat is an attack that takes advantage of a security vulnerability that does not have a fix in place. It is referred to as a “zero-day” threat because once the flaw is eventually discovered, the developer or organization has “zero days” to then come up with a solution. A zero-day threat can compromise a system or network by exploiting the unknown vulnerability, and can cause data loss, unauthorized access, or other damages. Zero-day threats are difficult to detect and prevent, and require advanced security solutions and practices to mitigate them. References:

• Palo Alto Networks Certified Cybersecurity Entry-level Technician (PCCET)
• Zero-day (computing) - Wikipedia
• What is a zero-day exploit? | Zero-day threats | Cloudflare

SIEM stands for security information and event management. It is a technology that collects, analyzes, and reports on security-related data from various sources within an organization’s network. The purpose of SIEM is to provide real-time monitoring and analysis of security events, such as user logins, file access, and changes to critical system files. SIEM helps security teams to detect and respond to potential threats, as well as to meet compliance requirements and improve their cybersecurity posture. References: What Is Security Information and Event Management (SIEM)? - Palo Alto Networks, What is a SIEM Solution? - Palo Alto Networks, Integrate IoT Security with SIEM - Palo Alto Networks

An encoded string is a common technique used by attackers to obfuscate their malicious code or data. By decoding the string, a security operations engineer can reveal the true nature and intent of the attacker, and potentially discover indicators of compromise (IOCs) such as IP addresses, domain names, file names, etc. Decoding the string can also help the engineer to determine the type and severity of the incident, and the appropriate response actions. Therefore, decoding the string and continuing the investigation is the best option among the given choices. Saving the string to a new file and running it in a sandbox may be risky, as it could execute the malicious code and cause further damage. Running the string against VirusTotal may not yield any useful results, as the string may not be recognized by any antivirus engines. Appending the string to the investigation notes but not altering it may not provide any additional insight into the incident, and may delay the response process. References:

• 1: SANS Digital Forensics and Incident Response Blog | Strings, Strings, Are Wonderful Things
• 2: 5 Minute Forensics: Decoding PowerShell Payloads - Tevora
• 3: Known plaintext analysis of encoded strings - SANS Institute
• 4: Palo Alto Networks Certified Cybersecurity Entry-level Technician - Palo Alto Networks
• 5: 10 Palo Alto Networks PCCET Exam Practice Questions - CBT Nuggets

An advanced persistent threat (APT) is a sophisticated, sustained cyberattack in which an intruder establishes an undetected presence in a network in order to steal sensitive data over a prolonged period of time. APTs are usually carried out by well-funded, experienced teams of cybercriminals that target high-value organizations, such as governments, military, or corporations. APTs have the skills and resources to launch additional attacks, as they often use advanced techniques to evade detection, move laterally within the network, and establish multiple entry points and backdoors. APTs are not interested in causing immediate damage or disruption, but rather in achieving long-term goals, such as espionage, sabotage, or theft of intellectual property. Therefore, option B is the correct answer among the given choices123 References:

• 1: Palo Alto Networks Certified Cybersecurity Entry-level Technician - Palo Alto Networks
• 2: 10 Palo Alto Networks PCCET Exam Practice Questions - CBT Nuggets
• 3: What Is an Advanced Persistent Threat (APT)? - Cisco
• 4: What is an Advanced Persistent Threat (APT)? - CrowdStrike
• 5: What Is an Advanced Persistent Threat (APT)? - Kaspersky

SaaS applications are cloud-based software that users can access from anywhere and any device. This poses a challenge for organizations to ensure that their employees are using the SaaS applications in a secure and compliant manner. Therefore, organizations need to establish and enforce acceptable use policies (AUPs) for SaaS applications that define the rules and guidelines for accessing and using the applications, such as who can use them, what data can be stored or shared, and what actions are prohibited12. AUPs help organizations to protect their data, prevent unauthorized access, and comply with local regulations and standards3. References: Using Software as a Service (SaaS) securely - NCSC, Minimum Security Standards for Software-as-a-Service (SaaS) and Platform-as-a-Service (PaaS) | University IT, How to Secure Your SaaS Applications - CyberArk

 In the given network diagram, device D is depicted as a cloud symbol, which is commonly used to represent the internet in network diagrams. The router is typically connected to the internet and acts as a gateway for internal network devices to access external networks. Therefore, device D is the router in this context. References: Virtual Router Overview - Palo Alto Networks | TechDocs, Networking (UDRs) in Azure: Inserting the VM-Series into an Azure …, Setting Up the PA-200 for Home and Small Office - Palo Alto Networks …

Containers are portable and lightweight alternatives to virtual machines that allow developers to package, isolate, and deploy applications across different cloud environments. Containers simplify the building and deploying of cloud native applications by providing consistent and efficient development, testing, and production environments. Containers also offer benefits such as rapid provisioning, high scalability, resource optimization, and security isolation. References:

• What are containerized applications? from Google Cloud
• What are containers and why do you need them? from IBM Developer
• Embracing containers for software-defined cloud infrastructure from Red Hat

SOAR tools ingest aggregated alerts from detection sources (such as SIEMs, network security tools, and mailboxes) before executing automatable, process-driven playbooks to enrich and respond to these alerts.

https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/cortex/security-operations-automation

To maximize the use of a network address, the administrator should use the subnet that can accommodate the required number of hosts with the least amount of wasted IP addresses. The subnet mask determines how many bits are used for the network portion and the host portion of the IP address. The more bits are used for the network portion, the more subnets can be created, but the fewer hosts can be assigned to each subnet. The formula to calculate the number of hosts per subnet is

2(32−n)−2

, where

n

is the number of bits in the network portion of the subnet mask. For example, a /30 subnet mask has 30 bits in the network portion, so the number of hosts per subnet is

2(32−30)−2=2

A /25 subnet mask has 25 bits in the network portion, so the number of hosts per subnet is

2(32−25)−2=126

The subnet 192.168.6.0/25 can accommodate 126 hosts, which is enough for the network with 120 hosts. The subnet 192.168.6.168/30 can only accommodate 2 hosts, which is not enough. The subnet 192.168.6.160/29 can accommodate 6 hosts, which is also not enough. The subnet 192.168.6.128/27 can accommodate 30 hosts, which is enough, but it wastes more IP addresses than the /25 subnet. Therefore, the best option is B. 192.168.6.0/25. References:

• Getting Started: Layer 3 Subinterfaces - Palo Alto Networks Knowledge Base
• DotW: Multiple IP Addresses on an Interface - Palo Alto Networks Knowledge Base
• Configure NAT - Palo Alto Networks | TechDocs

Cortex XDR is a detection and response platform that natively integrates network, endpoint, and cloud data to stop sophisticated attacks. A key benefit of Cortex XDR is that it acts as a safety net during an attack while patches are developed. Cortex XDR uses machine learning and behavioral analytics to detect and validate threats, and automatically reveals the root cause of alerts to speed up investigations. Cortex XDR also enables flexible and rapid response actions to contain and remediate threats across the environment. References: Cortex XDR- Extended Detection and Response - Palo Alto Networks, What is Cortex XDR | Palo Alto Networks, Cortex XDR Datasheet - Palo Alto Networks

Phishing is a type of attack that involves sending fraudulent emails that appear to be from legitimate sources, such as banks, companies, or individuals, in order to trick recipients into clicking on malicious links, opening malicious attachments, or providing sensitive information12. The link to a malware website in the email is an example of a malicious link, which may lead to the installation of malware, ransomware, spyware, or other malicious software on the user’s device, or the redirection to a fake website that mimics a legitimate one, where the user may be asked to enter their credentials, personal information, or financial details34. Phishing emails often use social engineering techniques, such as creating a sense of urgency, curiosity, or fear, to persuade the user to click on the link or attachment, or to reply to the email5. Phishing emails may also spoof the sender’s address, domain, or logo, to make them look more authentic and trustworthy6.

Whaling, pharming, and spam are not the correct answers for this question. Whaling is a specific type of phishing that targets high-profile individuals, such as executives, celebrities, or politicians, with the aim of stealing their confidential information or influencing their decisions7. Pharming is a type of attack that involves redirecting the user’s web browser to a fake website, even if they enter the correct URL, by modifying the DNS server or the user’s hosts file. Spam is the unsolicited or unwanted electronic messages, such as emails, texts, or instant messages, that are sent in bulk to a large number of recipients, usually for advertising, marketing, or scamming purposes. References:

• What is phishing? | Malwarebytes
• Phishing - Wikipedia
• Don’t Panic! Here’s What To Do If You Clicked On A Phishing Link
• How can Malware spread through Email and How to Protect
• What is phishing? How this cyber attack works and how to prevent it …
• Identifying Illegitimate Email Links | Division of Information Technology
• What is whaling? | NortonLifeLock
• [What is pharming? | NortonLifeLock]
• [What is spam? | NortonLifeLock]

● Reduce the attack surface: Best-of-breed technologies that are natively integrated provide a prevention architecture that inherently reduces the attack surface. This type of architecture allows organizations to exert positive control based on applications, users, and content, with support for open communication, orchestration, and visibility.

● Prevent all known threats, fast: A coordinated security platform accounts for the full scope of an attack across the various security controls that compose the security posture, thus enabling organizations to quickly identify and block known threats.

● Detect and prevent new, unknown threats with automation: Security that simply detects

threats and requires a manual response is too little, too late. Automated creation and

delivery of near-real-time protections against new threats to the various security solutions in the organization’s environments enable dynamic policy updates. These updates are

designed to allow enterprises to scale defenses with technology, rather than people.

Routing protocols are defined at the network layer (Layer 3) of the OSI model. The network layer is responsible for routing packets across different networks using logical addresses (IP addresses). Routing protocols are used to exchange routing information between routers and to determine the best path for data delivery. Some examples of routing protocols are BGP, OSPF, RIP, and EIGRP. Palo Alto Networks devices support advanced routing features using the Advanced Routing Engine1. References: Advanced Routing - Palo Alto Networks | TechDocs, What Is Layer 7? - Palo Alto Networks, How to Configure Routing Information Protocol (RIP)

Short-range wireless:

● Adaptive Network Technology+ (ANT+): ANT+ is a proprietary multicast wireless sensor

network technology primarily used in personal wearables, such as sports and fitness sensors.

● Bluetooth/Bluetooth Low-Energy (BLE): Bluetooth is a low-power, short-range

communications technology primarily designed for point-to-point communications between wireless devices in a hub-and-spoke topology. BLE (also known as Bluetooth Smart or Bluetooth 4.0+) devices consume significantly less power than Bluetooth devices and can access the internet directly through 6LoWPAN connectivity.

● Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) over Low-Power Wireless Personal Area Networks

(6LoWPAN): 6LoWPAN allows IPv6 traffic to be carried over low-power wireless mesh

networks. 6LoWPAN is designed for nodes and applications that require wireless internet

connectivity at relatively low data rates in small form factors, such as smart light bulbs

and smart meters.

● Wi-Fi/802.11: The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) defines the 802

LAN protocol standards. 802.11 is the set of standards used for Wi-Fi networks typically

operating in the 2.4GHz and 5GHz frequency bands. The most common implementations

today include:

‒ 802.11n (labeled Wi-Fi 4 by the Wi-Fi Alliance), which operates on both 2.4GHz and 5GHz

bands at ranges from 54Mbps to 600Mbps

‒ 802.11ac (Wi-Fi 5), which operates on the 5GHz band at ranges from 433Mbps to 3.46

Gbps

‒ 802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6), which operates on the 2.4GHz and 5GHz bands (and all bands between 1 and 6GHz, when they become available for 802.11 use) at ranges up to 11Gbps

● Z-Wave: Z-Wave is a low-energy wireless mesh network protocol primarily used for home

automation applications such as smart appliances, lighting control, security systems,

smart thermostats, windows and locks, and garage doors.

● Zigbee/802.14: Zigbee is a low-cost, low-power wireless mesh network protocol based on the IEEE 802.15.4 standard. Zigbee is the dominant protocol in the low-power networking market, with a large installed base in industrial environments and smart home products.

To deliver secure east-west flows and secure Kubernetes workloads in a public cloud environment, you have two deployment options available: VM-Series and CN-Series.

• VM-Series is a virtualized form factor of the Palo Alto Networks next-generation firewall that can be deployed in public cloud platforms such as AWS, Azure, Google Cloud, and Oracle Cloud. VM-Series provides comprehensive network security and threat prevention capabilities for protecting your cloud workloads and applications from cyberattacks. VM-Series can also integrate with native cloud services and third-party tools to enable automation, orchestration, and visibility across your cloud environment. VM-Series supports various deployment scenarios, such as securing internet-facing applications, protecting hybrid connectivity, segmenting internal networks, and enabling secure DevOps12.
• CN-Series is a containerized form factor of the Palo Alto Networks next-generation firewall that can be deployed in Kubernetes environments. CN-Series provides granular network security and threat prevention capabilities for protecting your Kubernetes pods and namespaces from cyberattacks. CN-Series can also integrate with Kubernetes network plugins and services to enable dynamic policy enforcement, service discovery, and visibility across your Kubernetes clusters. CN-Series supports various deployment scenarios, such as securing ingress and egress traffic, enforcing microsegmentation, and enabling secure DevSecOps34.

References:

• VM-Series in Public Cloud
• VM-Series Deployment Guide
• CN-Series in Kubernetes
• CN-Series Deployment Guide

In addition to local analysis, Cortex XDR can send unknown files to WildFire for discovery and deeper analysis to rapidly detect.

A static routing protocol requires that routes be created and updated manually on a router or other network device. If a static route is down, traffic can’t be automatically rerouted unless an alternate route has been configured. Also, if the route is congested, traffic can’t be automatically rerouted over the less congested alternate route. Static routing is practical only in very small networks or for very limited, special-case routing scenarios (for example, a destination that’s used as a backup route or is reachable only via a single router). However, static routing has low bandwidth requirements (routing information isn’t broadcast across the network) and some built-in security (users can route only to destinations that are specified in statically defined routes).

Virtualization improves the availability of IT systems and resources by enabling features such as12:

• Resource optimization: Virtualization allows multiple virtual instances to share the same physical infrastructure, reducing hardware costs and increasing resource utilization.
• Scalability: Virtualization enables rapid provisioning and deprovisioning of virtual instances, allowing organizations to scale up or down their IT capacity according to demand.
• Disaster recovery: Virtualization facilitates backup and replication of virtual instances, allowing organizations to restore their IT systems and data in the event of a disaster or outage.
• Fault tolerance: Virtualization supports high availability and load balancing of virtual instances, ensuring that IT systems and services remain operational even if one or more virtual instances fail. References: Virtualization Benefits: How Virtualization Improves Efficiency and Security | VMware, Virtualization Security - A Complete Guide - CyberExperts.com

● Benign: Safe and does not exhibit malicious behavior

● Grayware: No security risk but might display obtrusive behavior (for example, adware,

spyware, and browser helper objects)

● Malware: Malicious in nature and intent and can pose a security threat (for example,

viruses, worms, trojans, root kits, botnets, and remote-access toolkits)

● Phishing: Malicious attempt to trick the recipient into revealing sensitive data

"Remember that a trust zone is not intended to be a “pocket of trust” where systems (and therefore threats) within the zone can communicate freely and directly with each other. For a full Zero Trust implementation, the network would be configured to ensure that all communications traffic, including traffic between devices in the same zone, is intermediated by the corresponding Zero Trust Segmentation Platform."

Cloud-native security is the integration of security strategies into applications and systems designed to be deployed and to run in cloud environments. It involves a layered approach that considers security at every level of the cloud-native application architecture. The four C’s of cloud-native security are123:

• Code: This layer refers to the application code and its dependencies. Security at this layer involves ensuring the code is free of vulnerabilities, using secure coding practices, and implementing encryption, authentication, and authorization mechanisms.

• Container: This layer refers to the lightweight, isolated units that encapsulate the application and its dependencies. Security at this layer involves scanning and verifying the container images, enforcing policies and rules for container deployment and runtime, and isolating and protecting the containers from unauthorized access.

• Cluster: This layer refers to the group of nodes that host the containers and provide orchestration and management capabilities. Security at this layer involves securing the communication between the nodes and the containers, monitoring and auditing the cluster activity, and applying security patches and updates to the cluster components.

• Cloud: This layer refers to the underlying infrastructure and services that support the cloud-native applications. Security at this layer involves configuring and hardening the cloud resources, implementing identity and access management, and complying with the cloud provider’s security standards and best practices.

The correct order of the four C’s from the top (surface) layer to the bottom (base) layer is code, container, cluster, cloud, as each layer depends on the security of the next outermost layer. References: What Is Cloud-Native Security? - Palo Alto Networks, What is Cloud-Native Security? An Introduction | Splunk, The 4C’s of Cloud Native Kubernetes security - Medium

 Palo Alto Networks Cortex XDR is an extended detection and response platform that provides endpoint protection, threat detection, and incident response capabilities. When an endpoint is asked to run an executable, Cortex XDR does the following steps1:

• First, it sends the executable to WildFire, a cloud-based malware analysis and prevention service, to determine if it is malicious or benign. WildFire uses static and dynamic analysis, machine learning, and threat intelligence to analyze the executable and provide a verdict in seconds2.
• Next, it checks the execution policy, which is a set of rules that define what actions are allowed or blocked on the endpoint. The execution policy can be configured by the administrator to enforce granular control over the endpoint behavior3.
• Then, it runs a static analysis, which is a technique that examines the executable without executing it. Static analysis can identify malicious indicators, such as file signatures, hashes, strings, and embedded resources4.
• Finally, it runs a dynamic analysis, which is a technique that executes the executable in a sandboxed environment and monitors its behavior. Dynamic analysis can detect malicious activities, such as network connections, registry changes, file modifications, and process injections4.

References:

• Cortex XDR Endpoint Protection Overview
• WildFire Overview
• [Execution Policy]
• [Static and Dynamic Analysis]

Local organization security policies are the rules and guidelines that define how a SaaS application can be used by the employees, contractors, and partners of an organization. These policies cover aspects such as authentication, authorization, data access, data protection, data sharing, and compliance. Local organization security policies aim to ensure that the SaaS application is used in a secure, ethical, and legal manner, and that the organization’s data and assets are not compromised or misused123. References:

• Securing SaaS tools for your organisation - GOV.UK
• SaaS Security: A Complete Best Practices Guide - BetterCloud
• Security policy document examples for B2B SaaS apps

Personally identifiable information (PII) is any data that can be used to identify someone. All information that directly or indirectly links to a person is considered PII1. Among PII, some pieces of information are more sensitive than others. Sensitive PII is sensitive information that directly identifies an individual and could cause significant harm if leaked or stolen2. Birthplace and name are examples of sensitive PII, as they can be used to distinguish or trace an individual’s identity, either alone or when combined with other information3. Login 10 and profession are not considered sensitive PII, as they are not unique to a person and do not reveal their identity. Login 10 is a non-sensitive PII that is easily accessible from public sources, while profession is not a PII at all, as it does not link to a specific individual4. References:

• 1: What is PII (personally identifiable information)? - Cloudflare
• 2: What is Personally Identifiable Information (PII)? | IBM
• 3: personally identifiable information - Glossary | CSRC
• 4: What Is Personally Identifiable Information (PII)? Types and Examples

Security Operations (SecOps) is the process of coordinating and aligning security teams and IT teams to improve the security posture of an organization. SecOps involves implementing and maintaining security controls, technologies, policies, and procedures to protect the organization from cyber threats and incidents. When dealing with a known attack, SecOps must take the following action: document, monitor, and track the incident. This action is important because it helps SecOps to:

•Record the details of the attack, such as the source, target, impact, timeline, and response actions.

•Monitor the status and progress of the incident response and recovery efforts, as well as the ongoing threat activity and indicators of compromise.

•Track the performance and effectiveness of the security controls and technologies, as well as the lessons learned and improvement opportunities. References:

•Palo Alto Networks Certified Cybersecurity Entry-level Technician (PCCET)

•6 Incident Response Steps to Take After a Security Event - Exabeam

•Dealing with Cyber Attacks–Steps You Need to Know | NIST

The IP stack adds source (sender) and destination (receiver) IP addresses to the TCP segment (which now is called an IP packet) and notifies the server operating system that it has an outgoing message ready to be sent across the network.

The basic DNS record types are as follows:

● A (IPv4) or AAAA (IPv6) (Address): Maps a domain or subdomain to an IP address or

multiple IP addresses

● CNAME (Canonical Name): Maps a domain or subdomain to another hostname

● MX (Mail Exchanger): Specifies the hostname or hostnames of email servers for a domain

● PTR (Pointer): Points to a CNAME; commonly used for reverse DNS lookups that map an

IP address to a host in a domain or subdomain

● SOA (Start of Authority): Specifies authoritative information about a DNS zone such as

primary name server, email address of the domain administrator, and domain serial

number

● NS (Name Server): The NS record specifies aan authoritative name server for a given host.

● TXT (Text): Stores text-based information

The diagram displays a mesh topology, where each device is connected to every other device in the network. This topology is characterized by the multiple connections each node has, ensuring there is no single point of failure and providing redundant paths for data transmission, enhancing the reliability and resilience of the network. Mesh topology is one of the types of LAN technology that uses ethernet or Wi-Fi to connect devices12. References:

• What Is Local Area Network (LAN)? Definition, Types, Architecture, and Best Practices from Spiceworks
• Types of LAN | Introduction and Classification of LAN from EDUCBA

"In serverless apps, the developer uploads only the app package itself, without a full container image or any OS components. The platform dynamically packages it into an image, runs the image in a container, and (if needed) instantiates the underlying host OS and VM and the hardware required to run them."

Stateful packet inspection firewalls Second-generation stateful packet inspection (also known as dynamic packet filtering) firewalls have the following characteristics:

● They operate up to Layer 4 (Transport layer) of the OSI model and maintain state information about the communication sessions that have been established between hosts on the trusted and untrusted networks.

● They inspect individual packet headers to determine source and destination IP address, protocol (TCP, UDP, and ICMP), and port number (during session establishment only) to

determine whether the session should be allowed, blocked, or dropped based on configured

firewall rules.

● After a permitted connection is established between two hosts, the firewall creates and

deletes firewall rules for individual connections as needed, thus effectively creating a tunnel that allows traffic to flow between the two hosts without further inspection of individual packets during the session.

● This type of firewall is very fast, but it is port-based and it is highly dependent on the

trustworthiness of the two hosts because individual packets aren’t inspected after the

connection is established.

To find the subnet that the host 192.168.19.36/27 belongs to, we need to convert the IP address and the subnet mask to binary form and perform a logical AND operation. The /27 notation means that the subnet mask has 27 bits of ones and 5 bits of zeros. In decimal form, the subnet mask is 255.255.255.224. The binary form of the IP address and the subnet mask are:

IP address: 11000000.10101000.00010011.00100100 Subnet mask: 11111111.11111111.11111111.11100000

The logical AND operation gives us the network prefix:

Network prefix: 11000000.10101000.00010011.00100000

To get the subnet address, we convert the network prefix back to decimal form:

Subnet address: 192.168.19.32

The subnet address is the first address in the subnet range. To find the last address in the subnet range, we flip the bits of the subnet mask and perform a logical OR operation with the network prefix:

Flipped subnet mask: 00000000.00000000.00000000.00011111 Logical OR: 11000000.10101000.00010011.00111111

The last address in the subnet range is:

Last address: 192.168.19.63

The subnet range is from 192.168.19.32 to 192.168.19.63. The host 192.168.19.36 belongs to this subnet. Therefore, the correct answer is B. 192.168.19.16, which is the second address in the subnet range.

References:

• IP Subnet Calculator
• Subnet Calculator - IP and CIDR
• Which subnet does the host 192.168.19.36/27 belong? - VCEguide.com

Tunneling is a method of transporting data across a network using protocols that are not supported by that network. Tunneling works by encapsulating packets: wrapping packets inside of other packets. Tunneling within commonly used services is a technique that uses file sharing or an instant messenger client such as Meebo running over HTTP to bypass firewalls or other network restrictions. The data packets are encapsulated within HTTP packets and sent as normal web traffic. This way, the data packets can reach their destination without being blocked or detected by the network. References: What is tunneling? | Tunneling in networking | Cloudflare, What Is Network Tunneling & How Is It Used? | Traefik Labs, networking - What is HTTP tunneling? - Stack Overflow

 Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) is a protocol that enables ISPs and NSPs to exchange routing information among themselves. BGP is used to determine the best path for sending data packets across the Internet. BGP is also known as the protocol of the Internet backbone, as it connects different autonomous systems (ASes) that form the Internet. BGP is not used by end systems or local networks, but only by routers that operate at the border of ASes. BGP is a complex and dynamic protocol that can handle changes in network topology, traffic load, and policy requirements. BGP is also a scalable protocol that can support the growth of the Internet1234 References:

• 1: Internet service provider - Wikipedia
• 2: 1.8: Internet Backbones, NAPs, and ISPs - cs.huji.ac.il
• 3: Lecture Notes – Unit 2 How does the Internet work?
• 4: Border Gateway Protocol - Wikipedia